By Her Hand

By Her Hand is set in the tenth century and tells the story of a farm girl called Freda who thinks in poetry, but she has no learning. After surviving a Viking raid, she is taken in by an abbey and there, finds a new sisterhood and develops a passion for the written word. The bishop takes a special interest in her education and to please him, she plays the part of the saintly survivor. In truth, she cannot sense God, only her own rage and yearning.

As she chafes against the bishop’s control, she comes into the orbit of the fearsome ruler Lady Æthelflæd, and sees what it is to be a woman with power in this world. Inspired, Freda writes her rage into a poem about the Bible story of Judith who beheads the enemy Holofernes. This poem has the power to forge a kingdom, but it also has the power to destroy everything Freda holds dear.

At it’s heart, the novel is the story of a girl’s struggle to ensure her destiny is written by her hand. This is about England before it was England, and about a girl finding herself and facing her fears on the page, and off. It is about wonder, anger, sisterhood, the portrayal of women and the gatekeeping of story.

By Her Hand is an imagining of the creation of the Old English poem Judith. The oldest surviving version of the poem is in the Nowell Codex (also known as the Beowulf Manuscript). There are many parallel motifs and themes between the two great Old English poems and By Her Hand explores these with an eye to the past and the present. Who are the monsters? Who are the heroes? Who holds the pen? Who owns our stories, our minds, our bodies?

By her words

A few words on glossaries

Freda is a poet. She has absorbed language, story and knowledge of the world through the strong oral storytelling culture of the time and place. The language of Freda’s world is now called Old English. In the time of By Her Hand, it was called English, Englisc, Anglisc or Ænglisc (this was many centuries before standardised spelling). Old English is the language of Beowulf; the language that JRR Tolkien studied and the story culture that inspired The Hobbit and The Lord Of The Rings.

Early in the writing process, I decided language would be a big part of this story. I was already in love with this crazy messy mongrel of a language called English, and getting to know Old English was like finding out all about a lover’s life before you met them - their first words, first steps, their stumbles and tears. I became fascinated with Old English, its differences and similarities to Modern English, its wisdom, power and beauty. So much of Freda’s character and the world view of her people was found in Old English texts - poems, homilies, riddles, charters and even graffiti.

This would be a different story without Old English. Freda’s fascination with the power of the written word, ‘thoughts outside minds’, and the impact stories can have, is not a unique journey, but the path she takes to finding her courage through the Biblical tales of King David and Judith as well as the Old English poems Beowulf, Juliana and (by her hand) Judith, means that these texts and the Old English language is where she finds her voice. There are nods to other Old English poems and texts as well, namely - The Wife’s Lament, The Wanderer, The Phoenix, Elene, The Ruin, Cædemon’s Hymn, Dream Of The Rood, Deor, The Metres Of Boethius, The Rune Poem and the Exeter Book Riddles. I loved them all. A great collection of translations can be found at The Old English Poetry Project.

I was partly inspired by Tolkien, who, as well as making up several languages, used many Old English words in Lord Of The Rings, especially in Rohanese, the language of the Rohan. Mostly however, I was guided by my own sensibility and, as an avid reader of historical fiction, I am not a fan of glossaries. I like being trusted by the author to draw meaning from the page and for me, this is the ideal reading experience. I wanted the book itself, the story, to be its own glossary. Not all readers are the same (thank goodness!). And, for those who do like a glossary or who wish to learn more about the language, I hope this whets your appetite. See links at the bottom for more.

Mainly, I want readers to feel as they read. I think we hold learning and language in our bodies as much as in our mouths and minds, and this is a big part of Freda’s coming of age. I hope readers might experience in their body a little of Freda’s wonder, curiosity and vulnerability, as well as the discomfort and the courage to embrace the (as-yet) unknown.

One thing I knew was that I could not get it right for everyone so I have gone with what I would want as a reader. If you are here having read By Her Hand and looking for more on the language, welcome! I have loved putting this guide together.

I hope you enjoy!

Wyrd, more than a word

Before getting into the glossary, I think the word ‘wyrd’ deserves special mention.

Wyrd is possibly the most difficult word or concept to explain without writing a thesis. It is cognate of the Modern English ‘weird’, but modern weird and Old English wyrd, have quite different meanings.

In Early Modern English, Shakespeare’s ‘Weird Sisters’ from Macbeth, carry a slightly different meaning to the Modern English weird as being ‘a bit strange. But but the witches’ word is not exactly aligned with the Old English meaning either. The Weird Sisters were also written as the ‘Weyward’ Sisters and have been likened to the Old Norse ‘Norns’, and the Greek ‘Fates’. Interestingly, these entities are connected to weaving.

Yes, wyrd is most closely related to our idea of fate. It has been syncretised, or reconciled, into religion as ‘God’s will’ or, more pop-culturally ‘The Force’ in Star Wars. And like The Force, wyrd is more complex than fate. It could be explained as a connection between all things living and unliving, almost like an astrophysical cosmic web, or a tapestry in which all threads are somehow connected, or the butterfly effect with the universe being a gigantic butterfly house and every beat of every wing interacting with every other beat of every other wing. Another analogy is the ripples on a body of water if each life and choice is another ladle dipping in and out. How the ripples play and bounce off each other. It is the result and the interaction of our choices - on those around us and those beyond our knowing in time and space. Many Indigenous cultures have great respect for this.

The question of whether it pre-ordained by some higher power or is it entwined with free will? This is a question that storytellers have grappled with since stories began. It certainly feels that way at times, but perhaps our wyrd is to be forever asking the question, never finding the answer.

Wyrd is a good way to show how meaning exists on the page in By Her Hand. My intention was that no glossary would be required. Each Old English, Old Norse, Old Gaelic or Latin word or phrase is explained and contextualised in early references. For example, the second reference to ‘wyrd’ (a common term and concept in any story set in Early Medieval England) is this from a scene in which Father Ælle is speaking to Freda ( p38):

‘All but this page was lost. Yet God saved these words from the

baleful heathens’ flames. Some call it wyrd, fate, the great unseen

web that weaves through all our lives. But hear me, child. What

we once called wyrd is truly the will of God.’ He spoke slowly.

‘And God does nothing by chance.’

This comes up again many times. Her it is later (p167). When Lady Æthelflæd and Freda meet, the Lady references a line about wyrd from the famous Old English epic poem Beowulf (line 455):

Now I did not dare look at her.

‘God does nothing by chance,’ I said, bile rising.

‘The bishop’s words,’ she said, the shadow of a frown passing

over her face. ‘Some might see God’s hand, even in atrocities.

But it is also said, gæða wyrd swa hio scel.’

‘Fate goes always as she must,’ I repeated.

‘Or, as my mother liked to say, fate is drunk again. I believe

we should not surrender all to wyrd. We must listen with our

heart and make the best decisions we can in the time we have.

ABOUT THIS GLOSSARY

So here we have the glossary. I have included all words so it is quite long. Many of these words will be familiar to anyone who has read fiction or non-fiction from this setting. If By Her Hand is your first window into this time and place and you want more, I can recommend works by Annie Whitehead, Bernard Cornwell and Danielle Giles. But there are many more.

A few tips:

·       Words in order of page number on which the word first appears.

·       Nouns are gendered: m – masculine, f – feminine or n – neuter.

·       All words are Old English unless marked as Latin, Old Gaelic or Old Norse.

·       My attempt at (non-IPA) pronunciation is in brackets – these are based on several resources that sometimes contradict each other. Mistakes are all my own.

·       Definitions are taken from Bosworth-Toller’s Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online with some checks and cross references with Old English Translator.

A lot of research and love of Old English poetry and culture went into the writing of By Her Hand, but I am not a scholar. Sometimes I made word choices and grammatical decisions based on the very unacademic approach of ‘vibe’, rather than strict adherence to grammatical conventions. For example, I made the plural of hwetstan (whetstone), to be hwetstanas. This is correct. But with the word for turnip, næp, I chose Modern English convention of adding an ‘s’ to make næps, rather than the more accurate Old English næpas. My reasoning was that because the word was in dialogue, it would flow better as næps rather than næpas, and because readers might be more familiar with ‘neeps’ as a term for turnips (partly thanks to Tolkien and co). Like Modern English, there are regional and time variations but I lack the learning to explain such things.

As you read through, you might notice that many of the words are familiar. Cynn/kin; bearn/bairn; scilling/shilling - same pronunciation, same meaning. Some might be recognisable to readers of Tolkien or Bernard Cornwell.

Each page of any novel is the result of an untold number of decisions. Some I know I did not get right out of error, but all choices were made in service of the story and the reader and in the hope of honouring this earliest form of the beautiful messy beast that is the English language.  

CHAPTER 1

5. scop (shope) noun m: poet, storyteller, similar to a later Medieval ‘bard’

7. seax (SEE-ahks) noun n: a knife, an instrument for cutting. As a weapon, a short sword, a dagger

8. cweorn (que͜orn) noun f: quern, a round hand mill for grinding grain into flour. Related: cweornstan noun m: quernstone and cweorn verb, to use the cweorn. As a verb to mean the act of using the cweorn

9. puca (pooka) noun m: a goblin, mischievous spirit. Plural: pucan

10. wicingas (wíkingas or also vicking-gas) noun m: plural of wicing, a pirate, a sea-robber, thief, ‘viking’

10. Mycel Hæþen Here (MIċel HATH-en HER-e): Great Heathen Army (ASC). The Norse and Dane warriors who invaded Northumbria and Mercia in 865CE

mycel (myċel) adj: of size, great

hæþen (hath-en) adj: not Christian

here (her-e) noun m: an army, a host, a multitude

10. feorm (FEH-orm) noun f: stores furnished to a person as his due ie. tribute or taxes in the form of food or produce

10. hwetstan (HWETstan) noun m: whetstone for sharpening blade

12. uhtcearu (OOHTke-ahroo or also OOHTshe-ahru) noun f: cares before dawn

uht, noun m: time before daybreak

cearu, noun f: plural of ceare: care/sorrow/grief. Also name of character Cearu

CHAPTER 2

15. bearn (bairn) noun n: child, baby

17. wyrd (weird) noun f: fate, the otherwise than humanly appointed order of things (see above)

20. wes hal (wes haal) salutation: good health. Hal: whole, hale, healthy

21. weregild (WEER-gild) noun n: The price set upon a person according to their degree or status. When a person was wrongfully slain the wergild of the slain could be claimed from the slayer

22. Fyr Cæg (fire kay) noun: Fire Key, name of Wulstan’s seax

CHAPTER 3

26. winingas (winning-gas) plural noun m: bands of fabric wound around lower leg

26. winterfylleth (WINterfylleth) noun: Onset of winter, last full moon in October

26. Ængle-cynn (Angle-kin) noun: Angles or Angli, Germanic tribe of people originally from the Angeln Peninsular in modern-day Denmark. The Angles settled in central and northern Britain, especially in the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Later, with the Saxons, who settled Wessex, the Angles were one of several peoples who were later referred to collectively as the Anglo-Saxons

27. Fearrhryþer (Fee-ah hreether) noun: Bull. Name of Wolfstan’s sword

27. Pecsætan (PEKsataan) noun: Peak-sitters: people of the Peak District. Referred to in the Tribal Hidage as Pecsætna

30. lencten (LENGKten) noun m: The season we know of as spring, when days ‘lengthen’, also the name of the Christian fast, now known as Lent (from lencten)

30. leechcraft (LEECH-craft) noun m: lǽce-cræft (BT). Medicine, healing

30. Wes ðu hal (wes thoo haal): salutation: Be you well

32. sceola (sheeo-la) noun Old Gaelic: survivor

32. Mide (Meedh or Meeth) noun Old Gaelic: Name of Old Irish kingdom of Meath

32. náht (narht) noun: nothing.

32. witan (WIT-an) noun: shorter form of witenagemot, council of the wise. Plural of wita – wise man.

CHAPTER FOUR

36. fæted (FAEYT-ed) verb: covered in gold.

37. æsc (ash) noun m: Anglo-Saxon rune æ. Also means ash (tree/wood).

37. eth (eth) noun: Anglo-Saxon rune ð which makes a ‘th’ sound. Upper-case: Ð.

37. scriba (SKREEB-a) noun: Latin for scribe.

37. bocfell (BOK-fell) noun n: book skin, skin prepared for books, parchment.

37. blæc (black) noun n: black ink. Also the word for the colour black but in this use it is referring to the ink

37. writingfeðer (writing feather) noun f: quill, pen

38. mynecenu (MYneSHEN-oo) noun f: The feminine form of munuc (monk). Slightly different to a ‘nunne’, which at the time meant a Christian woman who lived a chaste life in her home.

38. sealmboc (SEE-aalm-bok) noun: psalm book, psalter

38. Ænglisc (ANG-glish) adj: language of the Angles; now known as Old English; the language that would eventually become English

38. sealmas (SEE-aalmas) noun m, plural: psalms. Sealm singular. Psalms

39. ceorl (churl) noun m: a low-ranking free man

43. cynn (kin) noun: family

45. hærfest (harfest) noun: Harvest of crops and the name of the season we now know as autumn

CHAPTER 6

57. soulscot (soul-scot) noun: price paid to priest for funeral prayers.

58. beir (beir) noun: Stretcher to carry a corpse. Word is still used in Modern English

62. ellenrof (ELLENroff) adj/noun: brave, courageous/bravery, courage

64. mædencild (maiden-child) noun: girl.

CHAPTER 7

68. Wealh (WHA-el) adj/noun: Welsh, of Wales.

71. mynecena (MINE-eh-SHENa) noun f: Plural of plural of mynecenu (p38). The feminine form of munuc (monk). Slightly different to a ‘nunne’, which at the time meant a Christian woman who lived a chaste life in her home.

72. sunsciene (SUNshee-ine) adj: Beautiful or splendid as the sun.

CHAPTER 8

75. hinderling, noun m: A mean, base, contemptible person

CHAPTER 9

83. landwihta (LANDweehta) noun pl f: wiht is a wight, creature, being, spirit. Wihta is plural form. Landwihta are the spirits of the land, nature spirits

CHAPTER 11

103. rood, noun f: a large wooden crucifix usually in a church. Similar to ‘rod’. Old English poem ‘The Dream Of The Rood’

103. weaxbred, noun n: a wax tablet for writing on

109. tæfl (taffl) noun f/n: a game played a board also of the same name

116. horing verb: from hore – a derogatory term for sex worker, harlot or promiscuous female

125. ætheling (ATH-el-ing) noun m: the son of a king, one of royal blood, a nobleman

CHAPTER 15

136. Fæder Ure (Fardeh-Ure) noun: Prayer ‘Our Father’ (ModEng) Pater Noster (Latin)

136. swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum, phrase: Section of the Our Father: As we forgive those who trespass against us.

CHAPTER 16

152. vitae/vita (pl/sing) noun, Latin: lives/a life.

155. næp (nape or neep) noun m: turnip. On the page I pluralised to næps though with correct Old English grammar it was would be ‘næpas’.

CHAPTER 17

161. Myrcna Hlæfdige (MIR-sna hLAFF-deeh) title: The Lady of the Mercians – title adopted by Æthelflæd when she became Mercian ruler.

167. gæða wyrd swa hio scel (gætha wyrd swa hee-oh shel): from line 455 of Beowulf, common translation is: Fate goes ever as she must.

CHAPTER 18
171. Hwæt (hwhat), exclamation: The first word of the written versions of Old English poems Beowulf and Juliana. Thought to be a way for the ‘scop’ or poet/storyteller, to gather the hall’s attention. Translated variously as: Listen! (JRRR Tolkien); So (Seamus Heaney); Bro! (Maria Dahvana Headly).

171. We ðæt hydron hæleð eahtian (We that HEAR-dron hæleth eahtian): Line 1 from Old English poem Juliana, composed by Cynewulf.

171. leoþcræft (LEOTHkraft) noun m: the art of poetry.

172. handseten (HANDseten) noun: The setting of one's hand to a deed or other document, a signature.

172. bi noman minum phrase, Latin: By my name. From the epilogue of Juliana written by the poet Cynewulf.

179. wedlac (WEDlak) noun n: wedlock; a pledge, security; in reference to marriage.

CHAPTER 19

184. scilling (SHILLing) noun m: shilling. Plural: scillingas (SHILLing-gas).

CHAPTER 21

204. deorling (DEORling) noun m: A dearling, darling, minion, favourite; term of endearment.

CHAPTER 23

213. ides ellenrof (I-des ELLENroff) noun: A woman of remarkable strength and courage.

Ides, noun: a woman. Little used except in poetry, and it is supposed by Grimm to have been applied… to superhuman beings, occupying a position between goddesses and mere women.

Ellenrof, adj: Remarkably strong, powerful, daring, brave.

CHAPTER 23

219. Genitablus titillations, phrase, Latin: Tickles the genitals. From Saint Jerome’s (beans) rule.

221. ƿynn (win) noun f: the name of rune/letter ƿ – which makes the w-sound. Wyn also means delight, that which causes pleasure.

221. þorn (thorn) noun m: the name of the rune/letter þ – which makes a th-sound (similar to eth); Þorn also means a thorn, the prickle of a plant or a plant on which such prickles grow.

CHAPTER 26

240. beatam me dicent omnes generationes, phrase, Latin: ‘All generations shall call me blessed.’ From the Magnificat/Canticle of Mary in the Luke’s Gospel.

CHAPTER 27

251. Praefatio Hieronymi in librum Judith, phrase, Latin: ‘Preface of Jerome in the Book of Judith’

CHAPTER 31

281. Hore-son wicingas, phrase/insult: Whore-son Vikings.

CHAPTER 32

287. ealdemoder (eald-e-moder), noun f: grandmother

CHAPTER 34

308. Pecsæta (PEK-seata) noun: Peak sitter (singular), a person from the Peaks (Peak District).

CHAPTER 36

325. cnapa (knappa) noun m: a boy, young man.

CHAPTER 37

338. deor cealf (DEEor calf) noun n: deer calf; animal calf. Term of endearment.

CHAPTER 38

343. Allt gott thakka, phrase, Old Norse: All good thank you.

PASSING OF TIME

MINUTES, HOURS, DAYS

There was no idea of minutes and seconds as we now think of time. Hours were the sections of the day according to the Holy Office. If something needed to be ‘timed’, it was thought to be done by chants or prayers.

Days of the week were similar to what they are now. They carry the names of Early English/Germanic deities with the exception of the Roman Saturday and Sunday. I have used the Old English day names and spellings from the Bosworth Toller. Once you get used to the ‘g’ making a ‘y’ sound, ‘dæg’ is simply ‘day’. Not all these days are mentioned in By Her Hand but here is the full list for anyone interested: 

Monandæg – Monday: Moon Day

Tiwesdæg – Tuesday: Tiw’s Day. Tiw is an Old Germanic/Early English god of war. Known as Tyr in Norse mythology.

Wodensdæg – Wednesday: Woden’s Day. Woden is the Anglo-Saxon god Woden, known as Odin in Norse mythology.

Ðunresdæg or Thunresdæg – Thursday: Thunor’s Day. Thunor is the Anglo-Saxon god of thunder, known as Thor in Norse mythology.

Frigedæg – Friday: Frig’s Day. Frig is the goddess of love, known as Frigg in Norse mythology.

Sæteresdæg – Saturday: Saturn’s Day. This day kept its Roman name but with Old English spelling. Saturn is the Roman god of time and agriculture, cognate with the Greek titan Kronos.

Sunnandæg – Sunday: This day also inherited its name from the Roman Deis Solis, Day of the Sun.

MONTHS

Months in Early Medieval English kingdoms had come into line with the Roman months by the period of By Her Hand. The only written account of month names from pre-Christian times come from the Christian chronicler Bede and are likely imperfect but they do indicate a strong link to the land. I have leaned lightly on this with characters doing activities that tie in with the old names.

August: The Battle of Teotanheale (Tettenhall) occurred in August, a month that had been called Weod-monath, ‘weed-month’ as it was a time when weeds needed to be pulled from the crops ahead of harvest. So, as Freda joins the party leaving for Liccedfeld, she notices people pulling weeds in the fields and muses on Nainsi’s wisdom about weeds.

Other nods to Old English month names are:

·       The mention of the mud in February. The word ‘sol’ in Sol-monath was thought to refer to the mud of this time but is now thought more likely to refer to breads or ‘hearth cakes’.

·       The need to milk the cows thrice daily in May, Thrimilce-monath, ‘month of three milkings’. October was Winterfylleth, also the name of the last full moon in October.

·       The pre-winter slaughter of surplus livestock occurs in November, which had been called Blot-monath, ‘blood-month’.

SEASONS

Sumor: Only slightly different to our Modern English ‘summer’. Also midsumor – midsummer.

Hærfest: This referred to both the harvest and the season in which the harvest took place. ‘Autumn’ came into use in about the 14th Century via French in late Middle English.

Winter: Still winter, still cold!

Lencten: This referred to both the Christian fast than occurred before Easter, and is where we get the Modern English word for this fast - ‘Lent’. Lencten meant ‘lengthen’ and was the time in which the days lengthened coming out of a winter. Like ‘autumn’, the word ‘spring’ came into use in the 14th century.

FEAST DAYS 

43. Hlafmæsse (hLAFmass) August 1: Literally ‘loaf mass’, now Lammas. A feast day to bless the first loaf made from the first sheath of corn (grain) from the harvest.

 57. Imbolc: Irish festival on February 1 to mark the end of winter. Also Saint Brigit’s Day.

101. Cristesmæsse: Christmas, December 25. Formerly Yule, Geol (g = y).

123. Candelmæsse: Candlemass, February 2. Feast of the Presentation of infant Jesus to the Temple.

140. Rogation days, Rogationtide: Time of fasting leading up to Ascension Thursday. Also known as Walking The Bounds.

142. Shrovetide: Shrove Tuesday. The time before Ash Wednesday to be ‘shriven’, to confess one’s sins and prepare for the lencten fast.

Extra resources:

With phonetic explanations and recordings of vowels and other sounds: https://oldenglish.info/advpronunciationguide.html

https://ealdaenglisc.wordpress.com/old-english-lessons/lesson-0-alphabet-and-pronunciation/

http://mdrout.webspace.wheatoncollege.edu/

https://english.nsms.ox.ac.uk/oecoursepack/index.html

Praise for By Her Hand

‘Marion Taffe easily belongs alongside renowned authors of the genre such as Geraldine Brooks, Maggie O’Farrell, Lauren Groff, and Robyn Cadwaller, making it all the more impressive that By Her Hand is Taffe’s debut.’

- Readings review

‘An impressive debut.’

- The Australian

‘I’m blown away by the extraordinary knowledge, skill and confidence of debut novelist Marion Taffe in this captivating piece of historical fiction. A survivor, a writer, a warrior, an acute observer of the world as it is and a dreamer of what it could be, Freda embodies the complexities of both her own world and the one we live in now. By Her Hand is a lament for a world where men take up so much space and an ode to the women who learn to take up their own – in the world, with their bodies, and for Freda, on the page. Exhilarating.’

– Kate Mildenhall, The Hummingbird Effect, The Mother Fault, Skylarking

‘Marion Taffe’s deft, vivid, intimate storytelling reels us into a past that casts a bright, penetrating light on ancient female friendships and – despite the oppressive and often brutal environment – points with determined confidence and lucid optimism to a different future for women, one where the societies that diminish and suppress are dissolved by the powerful intricacy and intimacy of female connection.’ 

– Sally Colin-James, One Illumined Thread

‘This is a mighty story, all the more impressive from a debut author. I loved the character of Freda, her softness and her strength. The world that Marion Taffe creates is visceral and compelling.’

- Robyn Mundy, Cold Coast

‘I sank into this novel, knowing myself in sure hands. With a foundation of meticulous research and deep empathy, Taffe invites us into the world of the tenth century, so unlike our own and yet, we discover, also familiar. It is a place of beauty and brutality, poetry and pain, longing and loss.  Each page breathes with the soul of the period in gorgeous prose that flows and thrums with the rhythms of the landscape.’ 

– Robyn Cadwallader, The Fire and the Rose, Book of Colours, The Anchoress

‘By Her Hand is a remarkable feat of storytelling – moving and beguiling, it is a timeless reminder of the courage of women, and a loving tribute to sisterhood. A sensory feast. A stunning reminder of women’s long history of courage. I wept as I read, in recognition of bravery, grief and longing.’ 

– Michelle Tom, Ten Thousand Aftershocks