By her words
Freda is a poet. She has absorbed language, story and knowledge of the world through the strong oral storytelling culture of the time and place. The language of Freda’s world is what now call Old English. Then, it was called English, Englisc, Anglisc or Ænglisc. This is the language of Beowulf; the language that JRR Tolkien studied and the story culture that inspired The Lord Of The Rings.
I knew early on as I was scribbling the early ideas for By Her Hand, that language would be a big part of this story. And I fell in love with Old English. So much of Freda’s character and the world view of her people was found in Old English texts - poems, homilies, charters (yes!) and graffiti.
I am grateful to my writing teacher, mentor and author Ilka Tampke (Skin, Songwoman). She encouraged me to follow my instinct and lean into the language. And I did. This went deeper than merely swapping out some Modern English words for some curious Old English words and sprinkling some runes through the manuscript. Language is a driving force in the story. Freda’s fascination with the idea of the written word, ‘thoughts outside minds’, and the impact they can have, brings her to the Biblical stories of King David and Judith as well as the Old English poems Beowulf and Judith, all of which frame this story. There are nods to other Old English poems and texts as well. And my use of language in the novel often comes up in interviews and conversations with readers.
Though I wrote each word within context at first mention, some readers have said they are keen to know more about the words and this language that seems both familiar and foreign at once. It is the earliest written form of what we know of as English.
ABOUT THIS GLOSSARY
· Words in order of page number on which the word first appears.
· Nouns are gendered: m – masculine, f – feminine or n – neuter.
· All words are Old English unless marked as Latin, Old Gaelic or Old Norse.
· My attempt at (non-IPA) pronunciation is in brackets – these are based on several resources that sometimes contradict each other. Mistakes are all my own.
· Definitions are taken from Bosworth-Toller’s Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online with some checks and cross references with Old English Translator.
· A lot of research and love of Old English poetry and culture went into the writing of By Her Hand, but I am not a scholar. Sometimes I made word choices and grammatical decisions based on the very unacademic approach of ‘vibe’ or intuition, rather than strict adherence to grammatical conventions. For example, I made the plural of hwetstan (whetstone), to be hwetstanas. This is correct. But with the word for turnip, næp, I chose Modern English convention of adding an ‘s’ to make næps, rather than the more accurate Old English næpas. My reasoning was that because the word was in dialogue, it would flow better as næps rather than næpas, and because readers might be more familiar with ‘neeps’ as a term for turnips (partly thanks to Tolkien and co).
Each page of any novel is the result of untold number of such decisions. Some I know I did not get right out of error, but all choices were made in service of the story and the reader and in the hope of honouring this earliest form of the beautiful messy beast that is the English language that I love.
CHAPTER 1
5. scop (shope) noun m: poet, storyteller, similar to a later Medieval ‘bard’
7. seax (SEE-ahks) noun n: a knife, an instrument for cutting. As a weapon, a short sword, a dagger
8. cweorn (que͜orn) noun f: quern, a round hand mill for grinding grain into flour. Related: cweornstan noun m: quernstone and cweorn verb, to use the cweorn. As a verb to mean the act of using the cweorn
9. puca (pooka) noun m: a goblin, mischievous spirit. Plural: pucan
10. wicingas (wíkingas or also vicking-gas) noun m: plural of wicing, a pirate, a sea-robber, thief, ‘viking’
10. Mycel Hæþen Here (MIċel HATH-en HER-e): Great Heathen Army (ASC). The Norse and Dane warriors who invaded Northumbria and Mercia in 865CE
mycel (myċel) adj: of size, great
hæþen (hath-en) adj: not Christian
here (her-e) noun m: an army, a host, a multitude
10. feorm (FEH-orm) noun f: stores furnished to a person as his due ie. tribute or taxes in the form of food or produce
10. hwetstan (HWETstan) noun m: whetstone for sharpening blade
12. uhtcearu (OOHTke-ahroo or also OOHTshe-ahru) noun f: cares before dawn
uht, noun m: time before daybreak
cearu, noun f: plural of ceare: care/sorrow/grief. Also name of character Cearu
CHAPTER 2
15. bearn (bairn) noun n: child, baby
17. wyrd (weird) noun f: fate, the otherwise than humanly appointed order of things
20. wes hal (wes haal) salutation: good health. Hal: whole, hale, healthy
21. weregild (WEER-gild) noun n: The price set upon a person according to their degree or status. When a person was wrongfully slain the wergild of the slain could be claimed from the slayer
22. Fyr Cæg (fire kay) noun: Fire Key, name of Wulstan’s seax
CHAPTER 3
26. winingas (winning-gas) plural noun m: bands of fabric wound around lower leg
26. winterfylleth (WINterfylleth) noun: Onset of winter, last full moon in October
26. Ængle-cynn (Angle-kin) noun: Angles or Angli, Germanic tribe of people originally from the Angeln Peninsular in modern-day Denmark. The Angles settled in central and northern Britain, especially in the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Later, with the Saxons, who settled Wessex, the Angles were one of several peoples who were later referred to collectively as the Anglo-Saxons
27. Fearrhryþer (Fee-ah hreether) noun: Bull. Name of Wolfstan’s sword
27. Pecsætan (PEKsataan) noun: Peak-sitters: people of the Peak District. Referred to in the Tribal Hidage as Pecsætna
30. lencten (LENGKten) noun m: The season we know of as spring, when days ‘lengthen’, also the name of the Christian fast, now known as Lent (from lencten)
30. leechcraft (LEECH-craft) noun m: lǽce-cræft (BT). Medicine, healing
30. Wes ðu hal (wes thoo haal): salutation: Be you well
32. sceola (sheeo-la) noun Old Gaelic: survivor
32. Mide (Meedh or Meeth) noun Old Gaelic: Name of Old Irish kingdom of Meath
32. náht (narht) noun: nothing.
32. witan (WIT-an) noun: shorter form of witenagemot, council of the wise. Plural of wita – wise man.
CHAPTER FOUR
36. fæted (FAEYT-ed) verb: covered in gold.
37. æsc (ash) noun m: Anglo-Saxon rune æ. Also means ash (tree/wood).
37. eth (eth) noun: Anglo-Saxon rune ð which makes a ‘th’ sound. Upper-case: Ð.
37. scriba (SKREEB-a) noun: Latin for scribe.
37. bocfell (BOK-fell) noun n: book skin, skin prepared for books, parchment.
37. blæc (black) noun n: black ink. Also the word for the colour black but in this use it is referring to the ink
37. writingfeðer (writing feather) noun f: quill, pen
38. mynecenu (MYneSHEN-oo) noun f: The feminine form of munuc (monk). Slightly different to a ‘nunne’, which at the time meant a Christian woman who lived a chaste life in her home.
38. sealmboc (SEE-aalm-bok) noun: psalm book, psalter
38. Ænglisc (ANG-glish) adj: language of the Angles; now known as Old English; the language that would eventually become English
38. sealmas (SEE-aalmas) noun m, plural: psalms. Sealm sing. Psalms
39. ceorl (churl) noun m: a low-ranking free man
43. cynn (kin) noun: family
45. hærfest (harfest) noun: Harvest of crops and the name of the season we now know as autumn
CHAPTER 6
57. soulscot (soul-scot) noun: price paid to priest for funeral prayers.
58. beir (beir) noun: Stretcher to carry a corpse. Word is still used in Modern English
62. ellenrof (ELLENroff) adj/noun: brave, courageous/bravery, courage
64. mædencild (maiden-child) noun: girl.
CHAPTER 7
68. Wealh (WHA-el) adj/noun: Welsh, of Wales.
71. mynecena (MINE-eh-SHENa) noun f: Plural of plural of mynecenu (p38). The feminine form of munuc (monk). Slightly different to a ‘nunne’, which at the time meant a Christian woman who lived a chaste life in her home.
72. sunsciene (SUNshee-ine) adj: Beautiful or splendid as the sun.
CHAPTER 8
75. hinderling, noun m: A mean, base, contemptible person
CHAPTER 9
83. landwihta (LANDweehta) noun pl f: wiht is a wight, creature, being, spirit. Wihta is plural form. Landwihta are the spirits of the land, nature spirits
CHAPTER 11
103. rood, noun f: a large wooden crucifix usually in a church. Similar to ‘rod’. Old English poem ‘The Dream Of The Rood’
103. weaxbred, noun n: a wax tablet for writing on
109. tæfl (taffl) noun f/n: a game played a board also of the same name
116. horing verb: from hore – a derogatory term for sex worker, harlot or promiscuous female
125. ætheling (ATH-el-ing) noun m: the son of a king, one of royal blood, a nobleman
CHAPTER 15
136. Fæder Ure (Fardeh-Ure) noun: Prayer ‘Our Father’ (ModEng) Pater Noster (Latin)
136. swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum, phrase: Section of the Our Father: As we forgive those who trespass against us.
CHAPTER 16
152. vitae/vita (pl/sing) noun, latin: lives/a life.
155. næp (nape or neep) noun m: turnip. On the page I pluralised to næps though with correct Old English grammar it was would be ‘næpas’.
CHAPTER 17
161. Myrcna Hlæfdige (MIR-sna hLAFF-deeh) title: The Lady of the Mercians – title adopted by Æthelflæd when she became Mercian ruler.
167. gæða wyrd swa hio scel (gætha wyrd swa hee-oh shel): from line 455 of Beowulf, common translation is: Fate goes ever as she must.
CHAPTER 18
171. Hwæt (hwhat), exclamation: The first word of the written versions of Old English poems Beowulf and Juliana. Thought to be a way for the ‘scop’ or poet/storyteller, to gather the hall’s attention. Translated variously as: Listen! (JRRR Tolkien); So (Seamus Heaney); Bro! (Maria Dahvana Headly).
171. We ðæt hydron hæleð eahtian (We that HEAR-dron hæleth eahtian): Line 1 from Old English poem Juliana, composed by Cynewulf.
171. leoþcræft (LEOTHkraft) noun m: the art of poetry.
172. handseten (HANDseten) noun: The setting of one's hand to a deed or other document, a signature.
172. bi noman minum phrase, Latin: By my name. From the epilogue of Juliana written by the poet Cynewulf.
179. wedlac (WEDlak) noun n: wedlock; a pledge, security; in reference to marriage.
CHAPTER 19
184. scilling (SHILLing) noun m: shilling. Plural: scillingas (SHILLing-gas).
CHAPTER 21
204. deorling (DEORling) noun m: A dearling, darling, minion, favourite; term of endearment.
CHAPTER 23
213. ides ellenrof (I-des ELLENroff) noun: A woman of remarkable strength and courage.
Ides, noun: a woman. Little used except in poetry, and it is supposed by Grimm to have been applied… to superhuman beings, occupying a position between goddesses and mere women.
Ellenrof, adj: Remarkably strong, powerful, daring, brave.
CHAPTER 23
219. Genitablus titillations, phrase, Latin: Tickles the genitals.
221. ƿynn (win) noun f: the name of rune/letter ƿ – which makes the w-sound. Wyn also means delight, that which causes pleasure.
221. þorn (thorn) noun m: the name of the rune/letter þ – which makes a th-sound (similar to eth); Þorn also means a thorn, the prickle of a plant or a plant on which such prickles grow.
CHAPTER 26
240. beatam me dicent omnes generationes, phrase, Latin: ‘All generations shall call me blessed.’ From the Magnificat/Canticle of Mary in the Luke’s Gospel.
CHAPTER 27
251. Praefatio Hieronymi in librum Judith, phrase, Latin: ‘Preface of Jerome in the Book of Judith’
CHAPTER 31
281. Hore-son wicingas, phrase/insult: Whore-son Vikings.
CHAPTER 32
287. ealdemoder (eald-e-moder), noun f: grandmother
CHAPTER 34
308. Pecsæta (PEK-seata) noun: Peak sitter (singular), a person from the Peaks (Peak District).
CHAPTER 36
325. cnapa (knappa) noun m: a boy, young man.
CHAPTER 37
338. deor cealf (DEEor calf) noun n: deer calf; animal calf. Term of endearment.
CHAPTER 38
343. Allt gott thakka, phrase, Old Norse: All good thank you.
PASSING OF TIME
MINUTES, HOURS, DAYS
There was no idea of minutes and seconds as we now think of time. Hours were the sections of the day according to the Holy Office. If something needed to be ‘timed’, it was thought to be done by chants or prayers.
Days of the week were similar to what they are now. They carry the names of Early English/Germanic deities with the exception of the Roman Saturday and Sunday. I have used the Old English day names and spellings from the Bosworth Toller. Once you get used to the ‘g’ making a ‘y’ sound, ‘dæg’ is simply ‘day’. Not all these days are mentioned in By Her Hand but here is the full list for anyone interested:
Monandæg – Monday: Moon Day
Tiwesdæg – Tuesday: Tiw’s Day. Tiw is an Old Germanic/Early English god of war. Known as Tyr in Norse mythology.
Wodensdæg – Wednesday: Woden’s Day. Woden is the Anglo-Saxon god Woden, known as Odin in Norse mythology.
Ðunresdæg or Thunresdæg – Thursday: Thunor’s Day. Thunor is the Anglo-Saxon god of thunder, known as Thor in Norse mythology.
Frigedæg – Friday: Frig’s Day. Frig is the goddess of love, known as Frigg in Norse mythology.
Sæteresdæg – Saturday: Saturn’s Day. This day kept its Roman name but with Old English spelling. Saturn is the Roman god of time and agriculture, cognate with the Greek titan Kronos.
Sunnandæg – Sunday: This day also inherited its name from the Roman Deis Solis, Day of the Sun.
MONTHS
Months in Early Medieval English kingdoms had come into line with the Roman months by the period of By Her Hand. The only written account of month names from pre-Christian times come from the Christian chronicler Bede and are likely imperfect but they do indicate a strong link to the land. I have leaned lightly on this with characters doing activities that tie in with the old names.
August: The Battle of Teotanheale (Tettenhall) occurred in August, a month that had been called Weod-monath, ‘weed-month’ as it was a time when weeds needed to be pulled from the crops ahead of harvest. So, as Freda joins the party leaving for Liccedfeld, she notices people pulling weeds in the fields and muses on Nainsi’s wisdom about weeds.
Other nods to Old English month names are:
· The mention of the mud in February. The word ‘sol’ in Sol-monath was thought to refer to the mud of this time but is now thought more likely to refer to breads or ‘hearth cakes’.
· The need to milk the cows thrice daily in May, Thrimilce-monath, ‘month of three milkings’. October was Winterfylleth, also the name of the last full moon in October.
· The pre-winter slaughter of surplus livestock occurs in November, which had been called Blot-monath, ‘blood-month’.
SEASONS
Sumor: Only slightly different to our Modern English ‘summer’. Also midsumor – midsummer.
Hærfest: This referred to both the harvest and the season in which the harvest took place. ‘Autumn’ came into use in about the 14th Century via French in late Middle English.
Winter: Still winter, still cold!
Lencten: This referred to both the Christian fast than occurred before Easter, and is where we get the Modern English word for this fast - ‘Lent’. Lencten meant ‘lengthen’ and was the time in which the days lengthened coming out of a winter. Like ‘autumn’, the word ‘spring’ came into use in the 14th century.
FEAST DAYS
43. Hlafmæsse (hLAFmass) August 1: Literally ‘loaf mass’, now Lammas. A feast day to bless the first loaf made from the first sheath of corn (grain) from the harvest.
57. Imbolc: Irish festival on February 1 to mark the end of winter. Also Saint Brigit’s Day.
101. Cristesmæsse: Christmas, December 25. Formerly Yule, Geol (g = y).
123. Candelmæsse: Candlemass, February 2. Feast of the Presentation of infant Jesus to the Temple.
140. Rogation days, Rogationtide: Time of fasting leading up to Ascension Thursday. Also known as Walking The Bounds.
142. Shrovetide: Shrove Tuesday. The time before Ash Wednesday to be ‘shriven’, to confess one’s sins and prepare for the lencten fast.
Extra resources:
With phonetic explanations and recordings of vowels and other sounds: https://oldenglish.info/advpronunciationguide.html
https://ealdaenglisc.wordpress.com/old-english-lessons/lesson-0-alphabet-and-pronunciation/
